BEHIND THE HEADLINES IN SPACE

the first man to land on the moon will be famous overnight their names will go down in history and they'll be honored and acclaimed by the entire world this is as it should be the astronauts of the Mercury program our first man to travel in outer space were also rightfully acclaimed as brave and highly trained pilots who helped make history their deeds made headlines and yet without this engineer and this research specialist and this group of technicians along with many thousands of others no space flight program whether it be orbiting the Earth or traveling to the moon and beyond would be possible you ninety percent of the space budget and the vast majority of the nation's space workers are employed by private industry throughout the United States and by universities the balance of the work is done at several government centers and laboratories the efforts of all are monitored by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration the manned space flight program is directed from a Washington headquarters office and carried out through three principal centers the Kennedy Space Center in Florida where vehicles and spacecraft are launched into space the Marshall Space Flight Center at Huntsville Alabama where launch vehicles are developed and tested and the manned spacecraft Center at houston texas where spacecraft are developed astronauts are trained and future manned space flights will be monitored and controlled quietly efficiently and daily work in all these areas proceeds until one morning let's take a closer look at just one important area of the work now going on behind the headlines of tomorrow the engineering and development work of the manned spacecraft Center engineering and development responsibilities at manned spacecraft Center are divided among seven major divisions these seven divisions constitute a single engineering organization responsible for monitoring all engineering and development of NASA manned spacecraft beginning with the advanced spacecraft technology division we find that its first concern is the environment of space itself what forces and phenomena will be encountered by spacecraft and their crews space environment specialists have a three-fold responsibility first to define the known and unknown environment of space and planetary bodies second to devise experiments to be conducted both in flight and on the planetary surfaces to increase our knowledge of the space environment and third to formulate the scientific training required for the operation of these experiments by astronauts and scientists participating in space exploration the most productive research areas of this division are literally out of this world the Sun the Moon the planets and galactic space itself in their work the specialists of space environment have been able to draw upon the findings of all projects of the nation's space program for example our first earth satellites the Explorer series reveal the large areas of space near the earth are filled with intense belts of energetic charged particles the Pioneer series of deep-space probes and passing through these Van Allen belts on their way out from the earth revealed that the particles are trapped by the Earth's magnetic field these belts of protons and electrons produce a radiation dose similar to that in bham fallout making it impossible for man to stay in them for long periods of time the trapped particle spiral about the Earth's magnetic lines of force in corkscrew trajectories bouncing from the northern to the southern hemisphere and back again the penetrating part of the Van Allen radiation reaches a peak intensity at about 2,000 miles altitude and another peak at about 10,000 miles leading to the concept of two radiation belts going beyond the Earth's magnetic field a spacecraft leaves the Van Allen belts behind but an even greater radiation hazard appears charged particles from the Sun these solar flare proton events occur irregularly and can produce radiation doses ten times larger than those encountered in the Van Allen belts the major concern of space radiation and field specialists is to define radiation hazards and protect man against them their work includes dosimetry the measurement of radiation dose here one of the scientists is comparing the dose received inside a water phantom with that measured on the outside he is developing a dosimeter that when worn on the outside of a spacesuit will tell the radiation dose inside the astronauts body in addition to extensive theoretical and statistical analysis to evaluate the danger of solar proton events methods are being developed to provide warning of impending events and around the world system of solar telescopes both radio and optical we'll watch the Sun 24 hours a day to detect flares and radio outbursts which precede a solar proton event these telescopes which are located near Apollo tracking sites to take advantage of existing communication systems will show the development of a flare and its location on the Sun which helps determine whether the stream of particles will reach the earth the solar proton warning net will also provide solar physicists with other data vital to basic science studies it marks a milestone in international cooperation radiation shielding is another important activity of this branch of the advanced spacecraft technology division some of the charged particles outside the spacecraft are stopped in the walls some passed through at slower speeds adequate shielding must be designed using the spacecraft structure itself and onboard equipment the Earth's atmosphere is a thick filter obscuring the view of earthbound astronomers but is also a protective shield for the inhabitants of our planet the earth magnetic fields another such protective shield against cosmic and solar radiation for spacecraft and missions going beyond these natural buffers the high-energy physicists are obtaining the information needed by designers to protect flight crews from trapped radiation cosmic rays radiation from solar flares and electromagnetic radiation from solar storms another hazard to space flight is space debris consisting of meteoric particles ranging in size from extremely rare ones thousands of feet in diameter to minut particles measured in thousandths of a millimeter the effect of pinpoint meteoric particles on visibility from a spacecraft is one of the many studies conducted by micrometeoroid and ejecta specialists in this preliminary test bombardment of a spacecraft window is simulated by a small sand blaster erosion of the transparent Plexiglas causes the two-test lights to blur and merge into a single apparent light source visual studies are also made by section engineers on spacecraft structures after their return to Earth this pit of undetermined origin was found on the glass of the MA 9 spacecraft after its 22 orbit flight of altitudes varying from 1 to 160 miles above the earth to obtain actual samples of space dust on the outer fringes of the Earth's atmosphere this ingenious tool was devised by the Dudley observatory it is called the Venus flytrap it consists of a payload with petal-like paddles to open in outer space the paddles contain small sterile sampling areas that entraps space dust prior to re-entry into the dense atmosphere the paddles close tightly and return the sample sections to earth for analysis the Venus flytrap experiment has indicated an abundance of fluffy very light particles that have not been obtained in Prior experiments current work is attempting to relate these particles to predictive meteoroid fluxes another source of space environment data was the manned Earth orbit flights of Project Mercury and experiments such as those conducted on the final mercury flight of astronaut cooker and the spacecraft faith 7 both the nature and amount of exterior and interior radiation were ascertained at orbital altitudes and found to be well below the levels harmful to man navigational tests were also made this metal sphere or beacon with a flashing light was ejected to find out how well man can see flashing lights in space to help with rendezvous and docking maneuvers in future space programs once ejected the beacon assumed its own orbit which kept it at varying distances from the spacecraft on the orbit following ejection after young around 180 degrees astronaut Cooper spotted the light shining brightly at 10 or 12 miles distance it became less discernible on the sixth orbit the astronaut clearly saw a three million candlepower light shining up from Africa such a light may be used to guide moon travelers on their return to earth the Earth's horizon or limb may also serve as a navigation fix in longer space flights this is a picture of the limb taken by astronaut Cooper another photographic research project involved use of a 35-millimeter camera to shoot to dim light phenomena one is called zodiacal light believed to be a weak reflection of sunlight from free electrons and dust particles the other dim light phenomenon photographed was the Earth's night airglow layer a week three color band of light around the Earth time exposures such as this one have yielded data on the height and intensity of layers and on solar energy conversion processes in the upper atmosphere views from space such as this one over the Himalayas were also photographed from time to time by mercury astronauts this shot was taken of islands in the Pacific just as Project Mercury verified and modified many hypotheses of space environment specialists project Apollo and other advanced programs will verify or refute other assumptions about outer space and the moon and planets but before men can land on the moon or on other celestial bodies experiments and unmanned space probes will provide a great deal of knowledge which we do not yet have for example the lunar surface technology section of the space environment branch must try to find out what the moon surface is made of before men land upon it I the so-called sees the mariya made of dust with the ordinary spacecraft sink far below the surface one theory holds that it would that the smooth appearance of the maurya is due to their being filled with deep dust and other debris from the highlands another theory suggests that the smooth seas are beds of lava which overflowed from volcanic eruptions proponents of the volcanic theory also believe that many of the moon's craters and mountainous ridges were formed by a volcanic activity however another theory is held by the majority of salon ologist seeeeee the technical name for lunar specialists they believe that most of the craters are the result of large meteorite impacts over the course of the moon's history meteorite impacts on earth and simulated impact studies seem to support this theory before the beginning of the Space Age most data on the moon and planets were obtained by using the tools of astronomy visual and photographic observations through telescopes today sellin ography looks to more advanced techniques such as radio echoes and satellite photography also it is hoped that exact answers to a wide range of questions from those concerning the moon's surface to whether or not the moon possesses a magnetic field will be forthcoming from programs for landing instruments on the moon the Ranger program for instance will include both hard and soft landings of instrumented capsules on the moon to obtain fundamental data on lunar characteristics surveyor is another program of advanced soft landing capsules designed to transmit pictures and data from the moon surface to the earth other vital data will be obtained by both unmanned and manned orbits of the moon before actual manned landing many questions of course will only be answered when we have been able to place on the moon the finest instrument yet made for the discovery of knowledge the observant human being in the meantime scientists of the lunar resources laboratory of the advanced spacecraft technology division are perfecting techniques to extract minerals from lunar rocks and even water both to drink and as a fuel source for future space missions from a moon-based spaceport and other study research and probes such as the mariner 2 flyby of Venus and the scheduled Mariner be flyby of Mars are yielding new facts about Planetary Resources atmosphere magnetic fields months and other space environment characteristics scientists of the planetary atmospheres section of space environment for example are not only studying the lunar atmosphere and that of the planet Mars but have already selected a particular moon of Jupiter best suited to manned landing for closer study of that planet later in the 20th century for manned flight in a space environment the advanced spacecraft technology division is also responsible for mission and spacecraft design long before a spacecraft can be constructed flight mechanic specialists must recommend the best mode for the mission to be accomplished by the spacecraft for example to land men on the moon and bring them back safely mission designers first had to consider the dynamics of the solar system particularly the motions of the moon with respect to the earth they had to plan a mission profile which would minimize exposure of the spacecraft to the deadly radiation of the Van Allen field and they had to try to select a flight date when radiation from solar flares would be of low intensity they had to select a launch window the precise time and small area of space through which the spacecraft must be shot to meet the revolving moon on a predetermined date the mission had to be designed so that the returning spacecraft would enter the atmosphere at the proper angle by hitting the correct entry corridor for the apollo moon project the mode finally selected is called lunar orbit rendezvous in this mission mode a three-stage launch vehicle will first lift the spacecraft into Earth orbit then thrust it to the vicinity of the moon and reduce its speed by retro thrust so that the spacecraft will fly in an orbit around the moon about 100 miles above its surface by firings of its own rocket descent engine and attitude thrusters the lunar excursion module called the LEM will separate from the service and command modules and will be maneuvered to a touchdown on the surface of the Moon carrying two men and only those items essential to the landing and exploration when it is time to return the descent engine and the landing structure will be left on the moon and liftoff from the moon will be accomplished by a small asset engine the lamb will be thrust back into lunar orbit to rendezvous and dock with the other two modules of the spacecraft the two lunar explorers will then transfer back to the command module rejoining their comrade who remained on board the orbiting spacecraft the lamb will be disengaged and left behind in lunar orbit as the other two modules carrying the crew and return supplies are thrust back toward Earth by the engine of the service module shortly before entry into the Earth's atmosphere the service module will be jettisoned leaving the command module to return to Earth with its passengers the lunar orbit rendezvous mode became the recommended mission mode for the Apollo program it's probability of success is higher its cost is lower and the Saturn 5 launch vehicle will be available in time even before final selection of a mission mode other conceptual thinkers of spacecraft technology were designing the spacecraft in the manned lunar mission for instance the spacecraft requires a passenger compartment or module adequate for the trip to the vicinity of the moon of act regardless of mission mode as revealed by these actual historical drawings evolution of this compartment the command module provides a good example of spacecraft design from earliest concept to final configuration the prime consideration for the basic design of a spacecraft which will return to earth is re-entry research has proved that a blunt shape sets up a shockwave which rapidly slows the speed of re-entry converting the falling body's kinetic energy or energy of motion into heat most of this heat is then dissipated as the shock wave spreads out in the air only a small fraction of the heat impinges on the body although reentry temperatures on the command module will still go as high as 5,000 degrees Fahrenheit spacecraft designers have provided for a heat shield made of ablative materials which under the intense heat are converted into gases and char this process leaves the basic structural material intact and spacecraft cabin temperature is low enough for human survival other spacecraft design considerations include shielding from radiation structural protection against meteoroids size and layout of modules for crew equipment and supplies escape systems and landing and recovery systems failures such as this at an early test of a launch system emphasize the precautions that must be taken before human beings are launched into space flight worthiness specialists of the advanced spacecraft technology division analyzed major system failure modes and conduct a continuing study program aimed at establishing flight safety and requirements for aborting missions when danger threatens the lives of crewmembers flight worthiness engineers also investigate and instigate reliability improvements in launch vehicles and launch systems other sections in the advanced spacecraft technology division are concerned with future programs such as manned space stations and man journeys to Mars they evaluate designs for spacecraft like this one a space station capable of orbiting the earth as a space laboratory with passenger scientists living and working in cabins located on the rotating limbs or this Mars excursion module a proposed spacecraft for landing on and exploring that planet the round trip to Mars in addition to the surface exploration period will take at least one year using launch and propulsion systems presently under development research and development programs for advanced propulsion systems and components are underway at several government and industrial centers throughout the country the manned spacecraft Center division which is responsible for the development of propulsion systems for maneuvering the spacecraft is a propulsion and power division in this scene technicians are preparing for a test run of a reaction control motor under consideration for use in the Apollo spacecraft reaction motors are actually small rockets which control the attitude of the spacecraft causing it to roll pitch or yaw phenomena such as temperature thrust pressure and time are measured during a test data acquisition equipment in the control room monitors instrumentation attached to the engine in this test fumes from the nozzle can be seen after firing the fumes indicate leakage through an inlet oxidizer valve for testing pyrotechnics and rockets at the permanent Clear Lake site several laboratories are being built at this 110-acre thermal chemical test area another laboratory of the propulsion and power division is the energy systems lab where tests and experiments are conducted on various methods of obtaining energy for spaceflight this solar simulator for example can simulate twice the intensity of the Sun it is used for testing energy conversion devices such as solar cells and thermionic diodes solar cells which have been widely used convert the sun's energy into electrical power on satellites and space probes may also be a source of power on manned spacecraft another source of electricity for spacecraft systems is the fuel cell energy systems engineers study a wide variety of fuel cells such as the small experimental unit of 10 watts and this one consisting of 15 cells with a total output of 250 watts the cells are interconnected in an electrical series each cell is an electrochemical device in which a high percentage of the energy derived from the chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen is converted directly to electrical energy fuel cells can be made using several different chemical reactants hydrogen oxygen cells were chosen for extended space missions due to their efficiency and low weight and because the byproducts of the reaction is pure water which can be collected in a tank and used for various purposes in a spacecraft from the blockhouse propulsion and power division engineers control and monitor test runs as a means of producing electricity for long-duration spaceflights the fuel cell has several advantages over conventional storage batteries