One Step at a Time (1960s)

Heat. Heat. [music] [music] [music] [music] >> [music] [music] [music] >> This is a modern school, well equipped and well staffed. We shall go with this student to his class and watch as he learns. We find here a situation which many educators regard as ideal for learning. The tutor relationship. One teacher, one student. Let's see how learning proceeds under these conditions. >> Static electricity. Now there are two kinds of electric charges positive and negative. Whenever an object receives a charge of electricity then it will either have to be positive or negative. Good. Now repeating there are two kinds of charges. One is positive and the other is negative. That's right. Now then two objects will repel one another when they have the same or as we could say like charges. On the other hand, they will attract each other when they have what kind of charge? Unlike unlike charges. We now know that two objects with like charges will repel each other and two objects with unlike charges will attract each other. Therefore, we could say that attraction occurs when objects have unlike charges. Good. And repulsion occurs when they have like charges. That's it. Now, let's see if we can put this into the form of a general rule. We can say that like charged objects will repel each other and unlike charged objects will what? um attract each other. Fine. Now, let's apply our rule to an example. If we take a hard rubber comb and a piece of fur and rub this comb through the fur, the comb will then attract bits of tissue. This means that the comb and the paper have what kind of charges? >> Unlike charges. It is apparent that under the tutorial method, this student's learning of the fundamental principles of electricity is progressing rapidly and efficiently. But good as this method is, the teacher cannot effectively tutor an entire class. She can only give her undivided attention to one student at a time. The teacher is responsible for the learning of every student in her class. She attempts to recognize and provide for the needs of each student. In turn, each student is an individual with his own ability to learn and his own problems in learning. Paul here does not seem interested in what is going on. Jimmy has a lot of vitality and is eager to contribute. Martha learns more rapidly than her classmates and is ready for new things sooner. Bruce here would like to respond in class, but he is timid. And Ralph wants to learn, too, but he did not understand some of the earlier lessons and needs help to catch up. All of the students need the individual attention of their teacher. But her time and energies must be divided among them and there is not enough time. We have seen how effective in directing learning this individual approach can be. Even at the time of Socrates, it was recognized that people learn best from the instruction of another skilled person, receiving their undivided attention, their ability to guide and control learning. The student responds actively to his tutor's direction. Through immediate correction, the student is prevented from practicing errors. The student sets his own pace and the tutor leads him step by step, one step at a time. When the student succeeds, he receives the approval of his tutor. Yes, the tutorial approach is a proven method of providing learning for all students at their own rate of progress. How could modern education make greater use of this method? In their research, experimental psychologists have made intensive studies of the tutorial method. They have found that one solution to the problem of carefully guiding the learning of an individual student is to prepare the lesson in written form. Here the student is continuing his learning of principles of electricity. The specially prepared set of cards tutor him in the same way as the teacher has done. As the student reads the card, he responds and then confirms the correctness of his response. >> The center of every atom is the nucleus. The plural for this word is nuclei. Fine. Atoms contain nuclei. The nuclei have a positive charge. That's right. Around the nucleus, there are negative charges called electrons. Atoms are made up of positively charged nuclei and negatively charged electrons. Around every nucleus there are negatively charged electrons. That's correct. Atoms have centers which are called nuclei. These are positively charged. Around the nuclei of the atoms are electrons which are negatively charged. That's good. And that was a difficult one, wasn't it, Bill? A neutral atom has an equal number of positive charge charges and negative charges. An atom with three positive charges and three negative charges is a neutral atom. Good. >> The lessons presented on these cards resemble the lessons presented by a good tutor. But while a teacher cannot attend to the needs of every child in her class at one time, each student can be provided with his own set of instructional materials. For convenience, information like that on the cards can be reproduced in a form suitable for presentation by a mechanical device. This device may be as simple as the ones this class is using. With this device, each student regulates his own learning. The same material that the tutor used and that was shown on cards is contained in the machine in a series of steps. In each step, the student is helped to make the correct response. After he has actively responded, the correctness of his response is confirmed. This technique helps students to overcome their individual problems in learning. Thus, Paul who was previously inattentive is carefully guided and directed in his learning. Now, Jimmy is encouraged to respond actively. And Martha can learn at her own accelerated pace. Bruce now receives recognition every time he is correct. and Ralph is assisted with difficult concepts in the lesson by means of small steps specially sequenced to facilitate learning. These devices accomplish the same thing that can be done by a good tutor. And what is more, they permit each student to learn by himself. For this reason, their developers have named them autoinstructional devices or teaching machines. There are many kinds of auto instructional devices. The forms have been varied, but they all have one characteristic in common. They present material to be learned as a tutor presents it, one step at a time. This device was one of the first intended for teaching by means of a machine. It was constructed by Dr. Sydney Pressie, a psychologist. It is especially useful with younger children. For older children, other devices have been developed. They vary in cost and each has different features designed to guide learning in different ways. Currently, a very widely used auto instructional device is called a programmed text. It consists of a program that is a sequence of carefully ordered steps arranged in book form. In the same manner that he learns with mechanical devices, the student reads, actively responds, and then confirms the correctness of his response. The same tutorial materials are used whether they are presented on cards, by a machine, or in a book. Their effectiveness depends less upon the manner of presentation than upon the techniques by which they are prepared. The American Institute for Research is a leader in the scientific development of programmed methods of education. Here in a recent investigation sponsored by the United States Office of Education, auto instructional materials were prepared for a high school physics course. The development of materials of this kind requires extensive cooperative effort on the part of psychologists and educators working as a research team. A psychologist carefully writes each of the basic units of the program called frames. The frames are derived from a previously developed course outline and lesson plan. The objectives of the course are first discussed with an educator in the field for which the program is being written. In this case, a teacher of physics. Then the program is written with the help of numerous textbooks and other reference sources. And a technical expert, a physicist is consulted for advice and criticism on the content of the frames. Even then the program is not complete. Every sequence is given a preliminary trial in an actual learning situation. It is the responses of students that determine the adequacy of each frame. Student errors are recorded and unsatisfactory frames are thoroughly revised so as to ensure learning. Additional trial presentations are made and the process of revision continues until students are found to make almost no errors at all. The educator is satisfied that the objectives of the course have been met and the technical expert is satisfied concerning the accuracy of the frames. Only then is the completed program prepared for reproduction. Here the program you saw being written has been put into use in the classroom. Each student has been provided with his own programmed text in physics and is using it to learn as fast as his abilities permit. Today, my students are learning some of the fundamentals of electricity. This method makes it possible for me to help them with their individual problems as they arise. And this is something every teacher wants to be able to do. The programs afford guided practice in a way that each student learns and understands the concepts and applications of physics. Let me show you what I think is an important fact about the program. It is not in any way a test. Instead, it actively encourages the student to integrate his knowledge so that he can state in his own words what he has learned. This mastery of physics is achieved by the student himself, one step at a time. Although auto instructional methods represent a very new approach to education, teaching machines themselves are not much different from other devices which have been helpful in broadening the scope of classroom instruction such as slide projectors, television, motion pictures, and the apparatus I use in laboratory demonstrations. The advantages of programmed instruction have been shown in scientific experimentation with typical high school classes. >> Here is Dr. David Klouse of the American Institute for Research. He and Dr. Arthur Lumdane recently conducted a series of field tests on the use of auto instructional materials sponsored by the United States Office of Education. Our experiments were divided into two phases. In the first phase, we studied the contribution of autoinstructional materials to student achievement when the materials were used to accompany methods which themselves were felt to be adequate and thorough. One physics class in each of 15 high schools in the area around Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania participated in our experiment. The students in all these 15 classes received instruction from their teachers by the usual methods of lectures and classroom recitation. The students had been given a well- illustrated high school textbook in physics. In many cases, there were two textbooks and the students did their customary laboratory work. In addition, the students in all classes received instruction from a televised series presented by Professor Harvey White, which was viewed every day in the classroom. The design of our first experiment is summarized on this chart. As shown on the chart, all the students in some of the classes were provided with the specially prepared program texts we had developed as a supplement to their regular classroom instruction. But the students in the remaining classes did not receive program texts. Their instruction in physics was limited to the usual methods of the teacher, the textbook, their lab work, and the televised series. The first experiment then was designed to determine whether the learning of students in the experimental classes which had program texts differed from the learning of students in the remaining classes which did not have program texts. Following their course of instruction, the students in all classes were given achievement tests. These tests were based solely on the televised series and were prepared independently by the educational testing service. Our results from this phase of the study showed that students provided with program materials had substantially greater achievement in physics than students who did not benefit from instruction by the program texts. This test of the auto instructional method was particularly encouraging, especially in view of the fact that in this study the students use of the program materials was not mandatory. In order to analyze further the effectiveness of the auto instructional method, we extended our study to a second phase. This second experiment was conducted with 10 physics classes in two additional high schools, five classes in each. In these classes, televised lessons were not included as part of their regular instruction in physics. But the students in all these classes had been given the specially prepared program materials and in addition, they had assignments in their textbooks and their regular laboratory exercises as shown in this second chart. Students in some of the classes received both the program materials and their regular classroom instruction. But the students in the remaining classes received only program texts. For them, the usual lectures and recitation were omitted. Thus, in this second experiment, we determined the extent to which program texts could effectively provide the kind of instruction usually provided by classroom teaching. Again, we obtained our results by giving both groups of students tests which measured their achievement in physics. Our results indicated that there was no apparent difference in the scores between the two groups. That is, the students who learned with program texts had substantially the same achievement as the students who had both the programs and their regular classroom instruction. The evidence from this second study suggests that auto instructional materials may be relied upon to provide instruction in physics independent of classroom lectures and recitation. In conclusion, these two experiments on high school physics demonstrate that auto instructional materials are able to produce significant gains in student achievement when the materials are used to supplement other forms of instruction and also that they are able to provide the kind of education usually provided by a classroom teacher. These investigations have clearly illustrated that learning can be improved by auto instructional techniques. Now the variety and depth of education no longer needs to be constrained as never before. Unlimited opportunities exist for these young people. What will each choose to be? Attorney, scientist, architect, nurse. Now renewed emphasis can be placed on the interests and abilities of each individual. In this new approach to education, the process of development has only begun. At research centers throughout the country, psychologists are at work adapting their laboratory knowledge of learning in the tradition of such prominent scientists as professor BF Skinner of Harvard to the problems of better education for all. Many contributions have been made to the autoinstructional method and techniques are constantly being improved. Even in the immediate future, much can be anticipated. For instance, programs are now in preparation on such subjects as algebra, French, and other languages. Statistics, problem solving, and symbolic logic. and program techniques are also being adapted to the training of adults as in the technical skills of industry and the academic fields of adult education. With the support of the United States Office of Education, studies are being made which are expected to lead to the development of programs for art judgment and creative thinking. Here also further work is in progress to apply auto instructional techniques to practical laboratory instruction in subjects such as introductory electronics. Eventually the method will be applied to the rapid learning of very advanced subjects as even now the program in high school physics is being expanded to include the principles of atomic theory. The auto instructional method holds great promise. Its effects can be farreaching. The school of the future will possibly be very different from the school with which we are familiar today. The speed and thoroughess with which the child learns will be much greater. The teacher's role may be a very new and exciting one. These students and I have been participating in a series of classroom seminars in which we are effectively utilizing the facts and concepts of physics through intensive practice with programmed materials. Each student has been thoroughly prepared for these discussions because they have completely mastered the basic principles and have already applied them to the solution of problems. These students can be provided with the opportunities to think for themselves. Here the student is encouraged to use his initiative and express his own judgment in this free exchange of ideas. Now the students learning experience is enriched by the full use of time and energy that was once devoted to explanations and drills. My job is more challenging than ever. Education at this level is possible only if the programs presented to these students are constructed properly. Because quality is so important, the role of the researcher will continue to be vital to education. >> We in education have been following closely the development of the auto instructional method. The construction of program materials involves a considerable amount of effort on the part of highly skilled individuals. The time will come, of course, when educators such as I will not only be called upon to serve as consultants to the scientists, but will be responsible for the writing of programs. As a matter of fact, one of the primary objectives of the studies currently being conducted by psychologists is to specify the procedures by which good programs can be written so that many more persons can be trained to do the job well. Those of us who work in educational media are enthusiastic about the progress that has been made by the auto instructional method. It is reasonable to assume that as this work continues, an increasing number of programs will be available. Naturally, all of these materials will not be of equal quality. And at this time, we have few critical standards for selecting the best program. Certainly, in order to provide the greatest benefit for our students, the program must be chosen on the basis of its proven value. A good auto instructional program is likely to have been prepared through the active teamwork of competent psychologists, educators, and technical experts. I wish to emphasize this point to you. We must select the programs to be used in our educational system with extreme caution. For even though almost any program might be expected to contribute to the learning experience, only those prepared by professionally qualified experts will ensure maximum student attainment. We have observed how the methods of the good tutor have been brought into the modern classroom. Let us review the characteristics of an effective program. One, the material to be learned is presented in small steps. Two, these steps are carefully sequenced, each built on what has been previously learned. Three, the student responds actively using his own words. Four, the correctness of his response is immediately confirmed. Five, each student learns at his own pace as fast as his abilities permit. Six, each student is carefully guided so that he is prevented from practicing errors. And seven, the program has been subjected to intensive trial, revision, and correction as an integral part of the writing process. Only under such conditions as these may the program be relied upon to produce substantial improvement in classroom achievement. >> We at the American Institute for Research see the need for continuing investigation and development of the auto instructional method. The support of the Educational Media Branch of the United States Office of Education as well as other government agencies, foundations, and industrial organizations has been extremely valuable. The 17 schools that joined us in our study in physics were given an opportunity to gain firsthand knowledge of the effectiveness of program materials. Such schools as these are at the forefront of research and education. As this work continues, schools throughout the country will have similar opportunities to utilize auto instructional materials in their curricula. We invite parents, teachers, and school administrators to learn more about these methods and to participate actively in bringing scientific experimentation to their own school systems. The modern school presents the children of our nation with many opportunities for their growth and their learning. The responsibilities of our schools are rapidly increasing. Education must grow to meet the growing need. Its methods must keep pace with its responsibilities. The auto instructional approach is an answer to a challenge that must be met. As in learning, progress in education proceeds carefully, logically, confidently, one step at a time. [music] Heat. [music] [music] Heat. >> [music]