A BEGINNING WITHOUT END

compos what primary forces hold matter together how can energy be extracted from these forces how can understanding be obtained about the material world both living and non- living these questions have been asked since the earliest time but to today man is closer to answering them than ever before one basic approach in obtaining such understanding is to study the smallest full part determine how it functions how it relates to other parts and to the whole to study progressively smaller particles of matter man has developed equipment to extend his senses first with Optical instruments then on microscopes [Music] recently developed field Scopes show individual atoms as white [Music] dots by careful adjustment single atoms can be removed at will to see deeper into the sample but in man's attempt to discover the basis of all matter scientists need to explore even into the interior of the atomic nucleus itself such studies are extremely difficult because the nucleus is 100,000 times smaller than an atom to illustrate the approximate size of the nucleus imagine a uranium atom enlarged to the size of a football stadium the nucleus would then be about 132 of an inch in diameter and would weigh about 1 million pound one practical reason for studying the nucleus is that it might provide an almost Limitless source of energy as an illustration if all of the Thermon nuclear energy in this one drop of water could be transformed into electrical energy according to Einstein's principle of the conversion of matter to energy then theoretically there would be sufficient power to burn a 100 watt light continuously for over 60 years similarly the amount of thermonuclear energy and one cup of heavy water would Supply the electrical needs of metropolitans San Francisco for an average 24-hour period but this is not possible today because man does not know enough about how energy is derived from nuclear forces the present nuclear research is an attempt to explain the questions behind many natural phenomena such as the conversion of matter into energy which takes place continuously as material in the sun is changed into radiant energy early man's curiosity about the Sun and other natural phenomena was Satisfied by myths during the many centuries since that time he has searched for answers to the fundamental questions about the world surrounding him today this quest for understanding continues in scientific institutions throughout the world one of these institutions is the Lawrence ation laboratory whose Berkeley site is visible in the [Music] foreground research is replacing pure speculation with new knowledge fundamental knowledge that could be used in further technological development that may contribute material gains to civilization to provide New Foundations of knowledge upon which to grow continued Research into the subnuclear world is necessary this evolves into a NeverEnding cycle of basic research which is truly a beginning without [Music] end this laboratory is a product of man's curiosity about the true nature of the world around him one man possessing this curiosity was the late professor Ernest o Lawrence who from an idea in 19 1929 developed a revolutionary machine the cyclotron from the first cyclotron 9 in in diameter larger cyclotrons were developed which have become major tools in extending man's senses thus permitting research in atomic and subnuclear particles it was during the 1930s that many distinguished scientists aided in developing the cyclotron into operational research equipment the young scientist seen on the right is now the director of the entire laboratory Dr Edwin McMillan these men and others established a new pattern of basic research team research with Specialists from different fields pooling their skills to build larger and more powerful cyclotrons extending the research's ability to study progressively smaller particles in the nucleus in addition the cyclotron was used to produce radioactive isotopes that had practical application for medical research this was the start of research in nuclear medicine and the founding of the Donner laboratory during an appearance on National educational television Professor Lawrence explained how the cyclotron works now here we have a um a mechanical model of the cyclotron which perhaps might be helpful in understanding how it works there are uh two semicircular electrodes in the vacuum chamber of the cyclotron uh which uh so to speak move up and down in potential here we have two plates that move up and down in potential and the particles are generated here at the center so if they start here and this is up and and this half is down they will go across downhill and pick up energy and uh we'll start it off here it's up here it's down down down down down the two are going up and down so the particle always crosses the region between downhill and therefore the particles spiral out on ever widening circles finally it coming to the periphery where they strike the target for the nuclear investigations indeed the first atomic disintegrations in our country were produced by this 11in cyclotron then came the 27in cyclotron which produced four or 5 million volt particles and produced many new radioactive isotopes and Then followed the 60in cyclotron It produced up to 40 million volt particles just prior to World War II Professor Lawrence was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics for his contributions to nuclear research it was in this research environment that Dr Glen T seaborg became a leader in the discovery of new elements heavier than uranium the research with fishable material convinced Professor Lawrence that Hitler might develop an atomic bomb he pointed out the dangers and contributed leadership to the Manhattan Project to develop an atomic device first in the United States Professor Lawrence used the magnet of the uncompleted 184 in cyclotron in the development of the electromagnetic method for obtaining fishable uranium for the Manhattan project the extensive research and development achievements of the Manhattan Project suggested that the national welfare would benefit from a vigorous program of nuclear research to provide National leadership and control of the program a civilian agency the atomic energy commission was formed the aec is the major sponsor for programs of nuclear research including those at the Lawrence radiation laboratory Federal sponsorship permitted the completion in 1946 six of the 184 in cyclotron as a research facility subsequently the bevatron a much higher energy accelerator was constructed in 1954 it became operational and in the years since it has revolutionized our knowledge of subnuclear particles in the post-war period scientific history was made by the discovery of new chemical elements this water cave with tanks of water 4 ft thick and a window also containing 4 ft of water was developed to Shield The Operators from the radioactivity emitted from some of the new elements during the quarter Century following 1940 nuclear chemists at Berkeley made major contributions to expanding the Periodic Chart by adding 11 new elements the search for new elements is continuing in an experiment the heavy ion linear accelerator is used in the production of new atoms they are deposited on stainless steel tape that transports them past special detectors from which it can be determined if a new element is present with the discovery of a new element or isotope the work has just started for detailed investigations of the nuide must be made some investigators use the iron free spectrometer in which the Earth's magnetic field is cancelled in order to measure exactly the energies of electrons emitted from the nucleus this equipment is the most accurate of its kind known the information about the structure and behavior of nucleid is then published to Aid other scientists another area of Investigation for nuclear chemists is the study of the detailed structure of nuclei by using particle beams of relatively high energy and intensity from the 88 in cyclotron in contrast a relatively small radiation sources emist in the biodynamics laboratory to irradiate a vessel containing three of the chemicals that were present in the Earth's atmosphere 4 billion years ago this Research indicates that these chemicals could have evolved into the complex organic molecules that are the building blocks for living matter in another area of research with living matter scientists attempt to discover how plants convert sunlight and simple chemicals into food a key factor in the scientist's technique is the injection of radioactive carbon into the plant's environment this Tracer element of allows the biochemist to follow the complex sequence of chemical reactions involved in a plant's food production cycle this type of basic biological research can help agricultural scientists increase the world's food supply another of the many uses of radioactive tracer elements is by the physicians in the Donna laboratory at Berkeley who have been using Tracer elements to Aid in the diagnosis of diseases for years the Tracer elements absorbed by parts of the body are accurately located with a scintillation camera after diagnosis is made standard medical or surgical procedures can be used to affect relief in recent years external radiotherapy of the pituitary gland has been used successfully in controlling a number of abnormal conditions including Cushing's Disease and acromegaly for treatment a beam of high energy particles from the 184 in cyclotron is precisely aligned with the pituitary gland in the center of the patient's head with head rotation the radiation dose is concentrated in the pituitary gland in essence the beam becomes a kind of nuclear scalpel as a substitute for surgery pick a patient before treatment and after treatment provide Visual Evidence of the promise for the future similarly some of the work by the inorganic materials research division could be applied in the near future this division is attempting to understand how materials behave in extreme environments such as in the core of a nuclear reactor and in outer space these extreme environments require materials with vastly improved properties today's scientists can look at the basic building blocks of matter atoms seen by the technique of electron defraction with this technique the atomic structure on the surface of a metal can be explored as well as the internal crystal structure a keyote of this division typifying the laboratory in general is the simultaneous attack on a problem by scientists versed in many disciplines physics chemistry metallurgy and Ceramics another example of research requiring a number of disciplines is the study of superconductivity the transmission of electricity without loss zero resistance presently it is necessary that the sample be cooled to the temperature of liquid helium minus 273° centigrade to achieve superconductivity this investigation has resulted in the discovery of new materials that can be used in experimental magnets capable of doing the same job as a conventional magnet 10 times larger the research is well suited to the Berkeley laboratory which started on the University of California Berkeley campus and expanded up the hill to the present site in 1952 the nation needed a new laboratory to conduct research and development in applications of nuclear energy at the request of the atomic energy commission Professor Lawrence with Dr Edward Teller started the laboratory at Livermore the present director of the Livermore laboratory Dr Michael May is a well-known theoretical physicist he is noted for his fundamental research in astrophysics and the design of nuclear devices for military and civilian use one of the physicist most valuable Tools in assessing the many inter relationships involved in designing nuclear devices is the high-speed computer in addition to studying the numerical computer printouts an experiment form this computer originated film illustrates the principal stress lines as a shock wave passes through two different mediums this typ of experimental physics Concepts gives the physicist a more comprehensive representation before an actual test is conducted an example of lamore's research in depth is the use of this induction plasma furnace to study the chemical processes that occur during a nuclear [Music] explosion this study is important to many of the programs at the laboratory but of particular interest to plow share because the materials heated by the plasma follow a course in cooling similar to that experienced in a nuclear explosion the plow share program originated from the vision of lamore's scientific leaders who foresaw the potential of employing this new energy source for peaceful applications in the sedan test conducted by the plowshare division a 100 kiloton thermonuclear device buried 630 ft underground the purpose of the test was to investigate the possibility of using nuclear explosives for large scale Earth moving projects preliminary results indicated that nuclear energy can move vast amount of Earth at a fraction of the cost of conventional methods and could make economically practical the construction of new Harbors cutting passes through mountains or excavation for canals in addition there is the possibility of using underground nuclear explosives for the recovery of natural resources that with present technology are not economically feasible this industrial application of underground nuclear explo might make it possible to recover untapped sources of copper ore oil and natural gas one of the prerequisites for the plowshare program is the study in depth of all anticipated Fallout hazards part of the investigation is being performed by a section of the biomedical Group which is collecting biological samples near the site of the sedan nuclear test the research involves extracting all the water from from the samples of animals plants and soils by vacuum distillation or as it is commonly called freeze drying the water from the samples is mixed with a scintillation fluid that permits the detection of one type of radioactivity this study is part of the overall research by the biomedical Group which is concerned with radioactive hazards that may enter man's food chains and be carried to the ultimate sights of deposit in the body another group is trying to determine whether very low amounts of radiation have any effect on humans in this research chromosomes are irradiated then examined for change the investigation is rewarding but the research time required to classify chromosomes is extensive the operator in the background is photographing chromosomes through a microscope then each chromosome is cut from a print for classification presently development is underway to electronically translate chromosome pictures into computer language for classification it is anticipated that computers could in one minute perform the work it would take a technician one hour to do this is just one example in which the scientist's creative ability in theory and concept is paralleled by the engineering staff advancing the of the art for fabricating and testing various prototypes so the chain of professional competence is incomplete without the skill of the technicians who make the parts build the equipment and assist in conducting the research a vital part of much research is the construction of prototype models this fabrication has required the Machining of parts from radioactive materials never before machined and to within tolerances approaching Perfection to meet the extreme tolerances required by the scientists machinists have had to develop adapt and refine new techniques and Equipment many times the capabilities of men and Equipment have been extended to fabricate what was considered to be impossible but equally important to making the parts is inspection for it can't be made if it can't be measured behind this Maxim is the successful development of new inspection techniques to advance the art of measurement such precise measurements are made at Livermore that some of the standards established here are used to calibrate gauges for other aec contractors one type of Machining not performed at Livermore is the shaping of high explosives into precise configurations this Machining must be performed by remote control Whenever there is a significant risk of detonation the Machining of high explosives is just one of the Special Operations conducted at Site 300 a few miles from Livermore this is basically a test area for Applied Physics research using High explosives in this test an 8B sphere of high explosive was used to study the low pressure ignition of a liquid explosive nitromethane all interlogs made up spe here we go we did it TV down during the test the low pressure shock wave on the left hand side passes into the nitromethane it is followed by a black Arc that indicates a low order detonation some of the experiments made at Site 300 are preliminary tests of components for nuclear devices to be used in underground tests but nuclear devices are never detonated at this 7,000 Acre Site because of its proximity to populated areas underground nuclear explosions in addition to to their role in National Defense give scientists a unique method for synthesizing heavy elements exposure of a Target material to the high Neutron flux during the explosion rapidly produces quantities of rare transuranium elements material is removed by drilling into the blast area then core samples are shipped to delor for analysis by nuclear chemists the examination of nuclear debris continues to provide information about thermonuclear explosions and the resultant release of immense energy such as occurs in the Sun but to gain the full benefit from thermonuclear energy the reactions must be controlled an example from nature of the steady release of thermonuclear energy is sunlight presently physicists in the Sherwood program are trying in effect to create miniature Suns on Earth in order to draw electrical power from thermonuclear reactions their immediate goal is to learn how to contain the thermonuclear fuel in the form of a dilute but extremely hot gas hotter than the interior of the sun to do this they use machines containing so-called magnetic bottles created by powerful magnet coils the fuel for thermonuclear reactors commonly called heavy water is a fraction of 1% of ordinary sea waterer and can be separated by an inexpensive process if the heavy water contained in the Pacific Ocean were extracted there would be enough thermonuclear fuel to supply the entire world with electrical energy present rate of use for 10 times as long as the universe has existed the problems are great but the rewards are enormous the motivation and skill of these men who are attempting to create an Earthbound Sun then harness it is characteristic of more than just the Sherwood groups it is typical of the laboratory in general but scientists can't do the job single-handed people with many different skills are needed to keep the laboratory running smoothly and to maintain it as a safe and attractive place to work while the scientists are in the foreground of the research effort it requires about seven people in support to allow each scientist to apply his time to research in addition to time employees there are part-time employees at both Berkeley and limore some of whom are graduate students graduate students have occupied a central role in the work of the laboratory since its origin in the physics department on the Berkeley Campus of the University of California as members of research teams their thesis research is Guided by senior scientists several of whom have received the Nobel Prize it's the Curiosity of these young scientists that has helped keep the laboratory Dynamic and Youthful furthering both their own and the laboratory's investigation of fundamental questions a lead search for new knowledge is Dr McMillan the director of the Lawrence radiation Library who received the Nobel Prize for his co-discovery of neptunium and plutonium several years later he originated a major principle of today's high energy accelerators one of the most famous is the bevatron at the Berkeley laboratory hidden underneath the bevatron massive shielding is the complex Machinery to accelerate matter to almost the speed of light the purpose of This research in high energy physics is to explain explain the nature of matter the Practical research starts when a particle from a beam collides with atomic nuclei new particles are created these events are recorded photographically from the particle tracks made visible in spark Chambers and bubble Chambers the photographic image of a nuclear event is first scanned by technicians who visually select the particle Tracks Of Interest to a physicist the film is then placed in a highly sophisticated measuring machine the nuclear events previously selected are found and the track of each visible particle from the nuclear event is measured to within 21,000 of an inch basically this equipment reduces the particle tracks into numerical data that is fed in for further calculations it is these computer printer extended the physicist senses deep into the nucleus and allow him to identify known particles of matter but more dramatically This research has led to the discovery of new particles such as the antiproton by 1966 more than onethird of all nuclear particles have been discovered in the hydrogen bubble Chambers at Berkeley but knowledge is not easily obtained there are normal a number of progressive steps initially the product of all this research is data statistics and reports which can develop into new bodies of knowledge knowledge that can extend Man's power to control his environment but first there must be research patient painstaking research before new knowledge can be obtained as each new plateau of knowledge and technology is gained the prospects of reaching a higher Plateau are greater this be a progressive cycle of research and development that is based upon the continuous striving for knowledge pure knowledge and knowledge applied knowledge for strength to keep the peace knowledge for industry and knowledge for health this striving for new knowledge is truly a beginning Without End l [Music]